Introduction
Interviewing is an increasingly popular form of collecting data for many kinds of research across the disciplines. Interviews may be conducted one-on-one or in groups, and in person or via mail or electronic means, but this discussion focuses primarily on face-to-face interviews with individuals. Interview types are often categorized by the amount of structure provided with highly structured (scripted) interviews most commonly used in quantitative research and semi-structured or unstructured (open) interviews more commonly used for qualitative research. At first glance, interviews may seem like a quick and easy way to collect data, but to be effective, researchers must consider the strengths as well as the weaknesses, criticisms, limitations, and challenges when making decisions about using interviews for data collection.
The AIM of This Research Method
Interviews, whether structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, are a form of communication. When used for research purposes, the aim of interviewing is to produce, collect, or generate different forms of data from groups or individuals.
Theoretical Assumptions
Quantitative and qualitative interviews have different theoretical assumptions.
- Structured interviews, commonly used in quantitative research, take a positivist approach guided by deductive logic. The researcher would use a structured survey to collect data that would test an established hypothesis.
- Unstructured or semi-structured qualitative interviews would take an inductive approach, beginning by generating data through the interviews, then moving “from those particular experiences to a more general set of propositions about those experiences” (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 2.3). A realist approach to qualitative interviewing sees interviews as resources, providing facts about the social world. An idealist approach considers the interviewee’s account “as one possible version of the social world” (Byrne, 2012, p. 211).
Research Questions Common in Interviews
- Generally, structured methods can be used in “many types of research, from case study, to cross-sectional surveys, to experiments” (Phellas et al, 2012, p. 182). The structured methods are appropriate when the researcher tries to investigate specific and precise questions and hypotheses that are relevant to the research questions, objectives, and purposes of the study. “Structured methods are suitable for projects where the researcher has quite specific questions or hypotheses to investigate” (Phellas et al, 2012, p. 198). The structured approach means that “the researcher figures out ahead of time what kind of event, or response, is going to be counted as relevant for the research problem” (Phellas et al, 2012, p. 198). Examples of research questions that may be explored using structured interviews:
- Do individuals with university degrees get better jobs?
- What are the best methods for assisting individuals to quit smoking?
- Semi-structured interviews are used when studying complex research questions or topics that are designed to access individuals’ attitudes and values“things that cannot necessarily be observed or accommodated in a formal questionnaire” (Byrne, 2012, p. 209). Researchers would choose these qualitative interviews when they wish to gather detailed information, anticipate wanting to ask participants for more information about their responses, believe their topic is complex and may be confusing to participants, or choose topics that involve studying processes (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 9.1). This type of interview is especially useful when researching issues where it may be important to hear voices and experiences which researchers believe “have been ignored, misrepresented, or suppressed in the past” (Byrne, 2012, pp. 209-210). Examples of research questions that may be explored using semi-structured interviews:
- Why do some young couples decide not to have children?
- How do mothers respond to putting their children in daycare centres?
Approaches to Data Collection
Interviews involve two or more persons exchanging information through a series of questions and answers. The questions are designed by a researcher with the intent of eliciting information from the interviewees on a specific topic (see Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 9.1). Typically, interviews occur face-to-face between two people: the interviewer and the interviewee. Variations, however, may include:
An Overview of Structured and Semi-structured Interviews:
The following table, adapted from Berg (2004, p. 79), illustrates the features of three types of interviews: Structured, Semi-Structured & Unstructured.
- Focus groups
- Telephone interviews
- Postal surveys
- Internet-based surveys
An Overview of Structured and Semi-structured Interviews:
- The interview (structured and semi-structured) method gives the opportunity to gather rich data (Newton, 2010, p. 1).
- Structured interviews are an attractive and popular method for the collection of quantitative data, but semi-structured interviews are a more attractive choice for the collection of qualitative data (see Interviewing, n.d.).
- The flexibility of interviewing as a research method makes it especially attractive.
- The data that is generated using interviews can be analyzed in many different ways
The following table, adapted from Berg (2004, p. 79), illustrates the features of three types of interviews: Structured, Semi-Structured & Unstructured.
Structured Interviews
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Semi-Structured Interviews
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Unstructured Interviews
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Types of Questions Used for Data Collection:
In structured interviews, “all respondents are asked the same questions with the same wording and in the same sequence” (Kajornboon, 2005, p. 4, italics in original). Questions are usually very specific and very often the interviewee is given a fixed range of answers (this type of question is often called closed, closed ended, pre-coded, or fixed choice) (see Kajornboon, 2005).
Harrell et al. (2009) describe various types of the questions that can be used during semi-structured interviews:
In structured interviews, “all respondents are asked the same questions with the same wording and in the same sequence” (Kajornboon, 2005, p. 4, italics in original). Questions are usually very specific and very often the interviewee is given a fixed range of answers (this type of question is often called closed, closed ended, pre-coded, or fixed choice) (see Kajornboon, 2005).
Harrell et al. (2009) describe various types of the questions that can be used during semi-structured interviews:
- Descriptive questions ask people to describe things. Such questions may provide insights or raise other areas for further inquiry that the researcher might not have considered before. Descriptive questions are usually answered in narrative form. For example, “Please give me an example of something he does to make you feel that way?”
- Structural questions help the researcher to understand relationships between things and to group things or processes that are alike. Structural questions are often answered with lists. For example, “what are the different software applications that are authorized to be on computers at this location?”
- Contrast questions help the researcher to understand the meaning of some terms. Contrast questions often begin with a list. For example, “So you have Word, PowerPoint, and Excel on your machine. What other software do you have?”
- Researchers should plan to make audio or video recordings of their interviews.
- Recording “allows the researcher to focus on her or his interaction with the interview participant rather than being distracted by trying to take notes” (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 9.2). Exceptions may be made for participants who are uncomfortable being recorded or for very sensitive topics. Participants must sign consents prior to being interviewed.
- In addition, data can be collected and recorded by:
- Jotting down notes during the interview itself
- Post-interview comment sheet
- Interview summary (see Bates et al., 2008)
Sampling Method
The time required for interviewing often limits the possibility of using large samples. The sample selected will depend, however, on the researcher’s purpose and the research question to be explored.
Researchers who are interested in making generalizations about groups larger than their sample may choose one of the following sampling techniques (more common in quantitative research):
Researchers whose goal is in-depth understanding rather than generalizing results may choose one of the following sampling techniques (more common in qualitative research):
Researchers who are interested in making generalizations about groups larger than their sample may choose one of the following sampling techniques (more common in quantitative research):
- Simple Random Sample- the researcher starts with a list of every member in the population of interest, numbers the list, and uses a table of numbers that have been generated randomly (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 7.3).
- Systematic Sample- the researcher starts with a list of every member in the population of interest and then selects every 10th (or whatever interval is set) person, depending on the target sample size to be selected (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 7.3).
Researchers whose goal is in-depth understanding rather than generalizing results may choose one of the following sampling techniques (more common in qualitative research):
- Purposive Sample- the researcher “begins with specific perspectives in mind” and “seeks out research participants who cover that full range of perspectives” (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 7.2).
- Theoretical Sample- “people are selected according to how likely it is that their interview will contribute to the development of an emerging theory” (Byrne, 2012, p. 216).
- Snowball Sample- the researcher relies on participants to refer others potential participants who may suit the research question being explored (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 7.2)
- Quota Sample- the researcher “identifies categories that are important to the study and for which there is likely to be some variation. Subgroups are created based on each category and the researcher decides how many people (or documents or whatever element happens to be the focus of the research) to include from each subgroup” (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 7.2).
Data Analysis
“Qualitative data analysis consists of identifying, coding, and categorizing patterns or themes found in the data” (Woods, 2011, p. 4). Many types of software programs (such as CAQDAS - Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis) are available to help code, manage, and analyze the collected data. There are many approaches for qualitative data analysis:
The following steps are common to the data analysis process:
- Thematic analysis
- Grounded theory
- Discourse analysis
- Others…
The following steps are common to the data analysis process:
- Transcribe the interview- create a complete written copy of the recorded interview, including nonverbal (i.e., gestures, tone of voice, etc.) whenever possible.
- Identify patterns- use a coding system to identify themes
- Consider using technology to assist in sorting the data (i.e., SPSS, MicroCase, NVivo, Atlasti)
- Note that in structured interviews, responses are often closed or fixed-choice and can be coded by simply assigning numeric values to the options.
- Note that open-ended interview questions may also be numerically coded. In this case, the researcher assigns a numerical value to codes.“The researcher may begin with an idea about likely responses to his or her open-ended questions and assign a numerical value to each likely response. Then the researcher will review participants’ open-ended responses and assign the numerical value that most closely matches the value of his or her expected response” (Blackstone, 2012, Ch. 9.3).
Reporting
The reporting method a researcher chooses will depend on his or her research question, the purpose for the research, and the audience to whom the research will be presented. Research may be presented orally, as a formal talk, in a panel discussion, in an informal round table discussion, or in a poster. Results can also be written up for scholarly discussion (i.e., dissertation, scholarly journal). Consideration should be given to disseminate findings to audiences that can benefit from the research study.
To facilitate the reporting of the findings, connections may be made to chronology, key events, various settings, people, and processes or issues that are related to the study using a schematic drawing or a conceptual framework.
To facilitate the reporting of the findings, connections may be made to chronology, key events, various settings, people, and processes or issues that are related to the study using a schematic drawing or a conceptual framework.